前言
如果词汇量是武侠世界中武林高手们不断追求地的内力，那语法，它肯定是帮助我们使出内力的内功心法，听、说、读、写就是相互过招。
从实际生活的角度出发去学习。为什么会有定语从句呢？因为我们需求表达更加丰满的意思，并且使用一种简洁的方式。
简单句的弊端
我想表达我有1个苹果。
I have an apple.
我还想进一步的描述，我有一个红色的苹果。
I have a red apple.
我还想进一步的描述，我有一个红色的苹果就在我的办公桌上。
I have a red apple. The apple is on my desk.
我还想进一步的描述，在我的办公桌上，有一个红色的苹果，就这个苹果是我从老家带来的。
I have a red apple. The apple is on my desk. I brought it from my hometown
这样的简单句表达也太费劲了，有没有一种不浪费太多时间、口舌、笔墨的表达方式呢？这就是我们之前说的并列句、非谓语动词、从句了。
使用并列句
I have a read apple and it is from my hometown and it is on my desk.
使用从句
I have a read apple which is from my hometown on my desk.
I have a big read apple on my desk, which is from my hometown where is one of the major apple production bases in our province.
所以这就是我们学习各种从句的原因，基于想丰富表达我们的思想的需求。
I have an apple. The apple is red.
I know a man. The man is a teacher.
I have an apple and it is read.
I know a man and he is a teacher.
I have an apple which is red.
I know a man who is a teacher.
什么是定语
我很长一段时间都以为定语完全等于形容词！只有形容词才能做定语！ 形容词和定语是1对1的关系。
明媚的阳光、美丽的花儿、浩瀚的大海.....那我和她在一起的夜晚呢？
牛津词典里好像没有这样1个单独的个单词，这1个单词是形容词性，它的单独意思就是那我和她在一起的。
如果只能用1个具有形容词（adj）词性的单词做定语，那我们得在牛津词典里扩展无数个形容词了！！！！
海的女儿（1个）、窗外的蝴蝶（2个）、张根的朋友们（3个，我的鼎鼎大名也载入牛津词典里....）、沐浴着明媚阳光的孩子（4个）.........
名词可以做定语、代词可以做定语、介词短语可以做定语、非谓语动词可以做定语、从句也可一做定语。
为什么非要用一直用形容词做定语呢？
My teacher is an elegant lady. 形容词作定语
My teacher is a lady of elegance. 名词作定语
My teacher is lady as elegant as a rose. 介词短语作定语
My teacher is lady looking as elegant as a rose. 非谓语动词作定语
My teacher is lady who inspired me in English grammar. 从句作定语
英汉有一个非常明显的差异：汉语的定语都是前置的，而英语基本都是后置定语。
可能英语是受贸易思维的影响是直线思维，先说重点然后再加定语对前面的重点进行补充、说明。
汉语的语言习惯就是大家不慌不忙娓娓道来。
定语从字面理解就是限定的语言。定语就是把一个模糊的、广义的概念变详细、变小。
定语就是修饰名词的成分。只要听到......的 + 名词，.....的就是修饰这个名词的定语成分。
定语的成分
可以做定语成分的不仅只有形容词！！！！
1.形容词作定语
那只善良的夜莺失去了他的生命。
The naive nightingale lost his life.
2.名词做定语
夜莺的歌声能使这朵玫瑰花开放
bloom和blossom的区别
bloom：指仅供观赏但不结果实的花。
blossom：指果树的花，常用复数。
Singing of nightingale can make the rose bloom.
3.介词短语作定语
窗外的夜莺听到了年轻人的叹息声。
The nightingale out of the window heard the sighs of the young man.
4.非谓语动词做定语
唱歌的夜莺最终因爱而死。
At the part of the end, the nightingale singing died because of his love.
单纯的夜莺一定是爱上了那个被女孩欺骗的年轻人。
The naive/ innocent nightingale must have fallen in love with the young man deceived by the girl.
5.从句做定语
The rose which the nightingale exchanged with his life failed to help the student.
定语的位置
汉语的定语都在名词的前面，英语定语的位置通常遵循前小后大原则。
1个单词修饰名词时，定语置于名词前面。
2个及以上的单词修饰名词时，定语置于名词后面。
定语从名词后开始，通常到从句的谓语动词之前结束。
如果定语在谓语动词之后的话，定语通常到句末结束，有可能会包括状语。
例如
这是一个关于夜莺和玫瑰的故事
This is a story about the nightingale and the rose.
在王子的舞会上，那个懂爱的年轻人被拒绝了。
That young man understanding love was rejected at the party of prince.
例外
当过去分词作定语、 形容词修饰不定代词时，即使只有1个单词，也放在名词之后。
something + adj 这种口语表达极其常见。
Let's try something new.
让我们尝试一些新的。
I have someting important to tell you.
那个被抛弃的男生看起来很可怜。
The dumped boy looks very pitiful.
或
The boy dumped seems very pitiful.
当过去分词修饰名词时即使只有1个单词也放在名词后。
定语从句
定语从句、形容词性从句、关系从句，指得是一种从句！
如果根据其在句子中的功能划分，则定语从句起到了形容词的作用，则称为形容词性从句。
如果根据从句和主句的关系划分，定语从句和主句之间有一个重复的元素（引导词），你中有我、我中有你，则称为关系从句。
I am a man who is always ready to help others.
定语从句的构成
定语从句=先行词（名词/名词短语）+引导词 + 从句，跟名词性从句相比是不是前面多加了先行词！千万不要搞混了！
He realy likes the book[先行词] that【关系代词】 he bought yesterday (从句).
The book is on the desk [先行词] where 【关系副词】 you left it（从句）.
先行词：就是定语要修饰的对象
引导词：链接从句和被修饰对象
定语从句在国际上普遍称定语从句为： Relative Clause即关系从句；
主句中的那个先行词（a Man）其实指代的就是从句中的那个引导词(Who)；
I am a man who is always ready to help others.
由于主句和从句2者之间存在指代关系，并非独立的2个个句子。
所以从句中的引导词也叫关系副词、关系代词、关系形容词。
关系代词：关系代词就是在定语从句中充当主/谓/表，有That、Which、Who、Whom、As。没有What，What无法引导定语从句
关系副词：关系副词就是在定语从句中充当副词，有 When、Where、Why，没有How。
关系形容词：关系形容词就正在宾语中从当定语，Whose 谁的、它的。
怎么选出1个定语从句的引导词？
基于以上我讲得先行词的分类、引导词的分类，我们就先锁定x行，在锁定y列。
先行词也就是被修饰的对象决定了，我们要使用哪一类引导词。是人？物？时间？地点？原因？
从句中缺少什么成分决定了，我们要使用哪一个引导词。
定语从句缺少主/谓/表就使用是关系代词。
定语从句主干成分完整就使用关系副词/关系形容词。
That old man died on the day when his son arrived.
The day是时间肯定是 That、Which、When其中的1个了！
His son arrived缺个宾语？？
arrive 是不及物动词，不需要宾语，这句话成分就完整。 His son arrived.所以不需要宾语。
引导词练习
有些从句需要看谓语动词是不及物还是双宾，如果是不及物动词就不需要宾语，双宾动词就需要2个宾语。
I will never forget the day when I meet you. 1.看先行词是The day是个时间，我就知道了要选 That/Which/When 2.再看从句I meet you，从句不缺主、谓、宾 3.那就选When I never forget the day that we spent. 1.看先行词是The day是时间，我就知道了要选 That/Which/When 2.再看从句We spent，从句缺宾 3.那就选that You had better have some reason why you are late. 1.看先行词是Some reason是原因，我就知道了要选 That/Which/Why 2.再看从句You are late，从句不缺主、谓、宾 3.那就选why You had better have some reason which/that sounds perfect. 1.看先行词是Some reason是原因，我就知道了要选 That/Which/Why 2.再看从句Sounds perfect.，从句缺主语 3.那就选That/Which
我喜欢屋顶是圆的房子。 I love buildings whose roofs are round. 那个老人在他儿子到达的那天去世了。 The old lady died on that day when her son arrived. 我们应该尊重那些坚持梦想的穷孩子。 stick to ：紧随;紧跟;呆在…近旁;坚持不变;遵守，坚持（诺言、协议、决定、原则等）;遵循（规则） We should respect the poor children who stick to their dreams. 她从来都喜欢父母有钱的男生。 Boys whose parents are rich never fail to fascinate her. 母亲出生的那个小城市这么多年来一直是我向我的地方。 The town where my mother was born has always been an attraction for me over the years.
Who就可以作主语也可以作宾语，whom只能做宾语。
He is the girl who loves me. 缺主语
He is the girl who/whom I love. 缺宾语
He is the girl whose father is wealthy. 从句
定语从句的分类
限制性定语从句
非限制性定语从句
1.限制定语从句和先行词关系紧密，删除后影响整个句子的意思。
I love you, teacher Li who is beautiful. 非限制性定语从句和先行词关系疏松，起补充说明的作用，删除后影响主句的意思。 I love you, teacher Li who is beautiful.
2.非限制定语从句使用逗号隔开先行词个引导词。
3.非限制性定语从句的引导词
非限制性定语从句，先行词是人或者物时，引导词只能使用：Who、Whom、Whose、Which
Jane Eyre, who/whom we have learned a lot from, is a persistent lady.
4.限制性定语从句Which/That做宾语时可以省略，非限制性定语从句不可以省略Which/That。
5.非限制性定语从句不可以修饰句子，限制性定语从句可以修饰句子。
He said he had climbed up the top of the Everest, which I suspect very much. which在指代前面一个句子，并不指代珠穆拉玛峰。 He hasn't showed up at school for ten days in a row, which is deeply concerns his teacher. Which：指代他连续10天没有去学校这件事，让他的老师非常担心。
6.限制性定语从句翻译为....的，非限制性定语翻译成2个独立的句子。
Edison, whose inventions have been over 2,000, is a famous scientist. 爱迪生是一个伟大的科学家。他的发明已经超过了两千项。 thought-provoking : adj.发人深省的;引人深思的 convey: v.表达，传递(思想、感情等);传送;运送;输送 The picture is fairly thought-provoking, which intends to convey to us this message. 这种图片是发人深省的，它旨在向我们传达一种信息。
定语从句特殊用法
1.That可省略的情况
在前面的名词性从句我已经提到That引导的宾语从句，That可以省略。
She saind (that) she would marry a old rich man.
在that引导的定语从句如果缺少宾语也是可以省略的；
dazzlingly : adv 灿烂地;耀眼地;令人目眩地
futurologist :n.未来学家
envisage: v.想象;设想;展望
The potential evolution of today's technology and its social consequences, is dazzlingly complicated, and it is perhaps best left to science-fiction writers and futurologist to explore the many possibilities （that）we can envisage.
2.介词+关系代词+从句
定语从句里，当从句的谓语动词是不及物动词，而关系代词又要在从句里做宾语时,这个不及物动词要带相应的介词.
正常的语序是,该介词是紧跟在不及物动词后面的，但有时为了平衡句子的结构，习惯将介词放在关系代词的前面,叫“介词前置。
但这不是硬性规定的，也可以不前置。
另一方面,有些介词是与不及物动词紧密相连的,不能分开,如look for ,look after ,look at,get on（上车）,get off（下车）等,就不能前置.
所以,当你不清楚能不能将介词前置时,最好还是不要前置.
此外,还要注意,介词一旦前置,则关系代词要用宾格（原来是that的要改为which,原来用who的改为whom.）
This is the city where I have lived for 20 years.
This is the city in which I have lived for 20 years.
Whose 可以使用 of which/whom替换。
人：
Mr. Martin criticized the students whose homework hasn't been handed in.
Mr. Li criticized the students of whom homework hasn't been handed in.
He made a machine through which he could speak to people thousands of miles away.
贝尔发明了一种机器，通过这种机器他可以和远在万里之外的人们说话。
物:
We live in a house whose windows open to the south.
We live in a house of which windows open to the south.
Case 2: 定语从句中的谓语为 动词+介词时，并且先行词在定语从句中作宾语时。
This is a subject which we might argue about for a long while.
This is a subject about which we might argue for a long while.
She doesn't want to make friends with the elites to whom her parents introduced her during the ball.
她不喜欢和她父母在舞会上介绍给她的精英交朋友。
(2)介词+关系代词时，关系代词的选择。
修饰人时，只能用Whom。
修饰物时，只能用Which。
He is the student with whom my teacher talked.
This is the hotel at which Mr. Jason like to stay.
pollen: n 花粉
reproductive: adj.生殖的;繁殖的
vagary :n.奇思遐想;游移不定;变幻莫测
vast: adj.辽阔的;巨大的;庞大的;大量的
at the expense of ：以…为代价;以牺牲…的利益为代价
Traditionally, pollination by wind has been viewed as a reproductive process marked by random events in which the vagaries of the wind are compensated for by the generation of vast quantities of pollen, so that the ultimate production of new seeds is assured at the expense of producing much more pollen than is actually used.
3.The same.... as和the same.....that
Elizabeth Bennet is the same girl as I love. 就像我爱的那个女人！ Elizabeth Bennet is the same girl that I love. 就是我爱的那个女人！
4.
(1) As 引导的从句可以位于主句前、中、后任意位置，翻译成“正如”；Which 只能放在所修饰的句子后面。
As is known to us all, man struggle upwards and water flows downwards.
正如我们都知道的，人往高处走水往低处流。
Man struggle upwards and water flows downwards, which is known to us all.
人往高处走水往低处流，这我们都知道。
(2) As后的往往是be 动词；Which后可以跟任一类型的动词。
As is know to the United Sates, Mark Twain is a great writer. 正如美国人知道的那样，马克吐温是一名有名的作家。 He changed his mind, which made me very angry. 马克吐温是一名有名的作家，这美国人都知道。
1.看引导词是否在从句中从当成分？
如果引导词在从句中充当了句子成分， 就是定语从句。
如果引导词在从句中没有充当句子成分，就是同位语从句。
2.看先行词
定语从句是对先行词的修饰。
同位语从句是对先行词的解释。
而所有的名词都可以被修饰，但是不是所有的名词都可以被解释。
同位语的先行词只能是可以被解释的抽象名词。
同位语的先行词根本无法解释1个具体的人（比如你解释一下我吧！）、1件具体的物（你解释一下太阳吧！）。
3.看引导词
定语从句的引导词有9个（含as）
同位语的引导词通常是That
I have a dream that was definitely sweet. (定语从句)
我有一个甜美的梦想
I had a dream that I could become a rich man someday.（同位语从句）
我有一个梦想，这个梦想是可以称为有钱人。
定语从句的至难点
通常情况下定语从修饰的先行词就在引导词的前面。但是有时候先行词很难发现。
所以定语从句的至难点就是寻找引导词前面的先行词！
你才确定了引导词前面的先行词，你才能确定这个定语从句修饰的到底是谁？
1.定语从句的先行词通常是离让最近的名词，但是有时候会被状语隔开喲。
When someone abandons you, she is the one who should get loss because for her, she loss someone who loves her, but for you, you lose someone who does not love you.
当有些抛弃你的时候，她应该是那个感到失落的人，对于她来说，她失去了一个爱她的人。对于你来说你，你失去了一个根本不爱你的女人。
The words used by speaker may stir up unfavorable reaction in the listener which interfere with his comprehension; hence, the transmission-reception system break down.
说话人所使用的语言可能会引起听者不好的反应，这种反应干扰了他们的理解能力。因此传递接收就中断了。
As a linguist, he acknowledges that all varieties of human language, including none-standard ones like Black English can be powerfully expressive, there exists no language or dialect in the world that can not convey complex ideas.
作为1个语言学家，他承认各种各样的语言，包括不太标准的黑人英语，都可以精确的表达思想。这个世界上没有1中语言不可以表达出复杂的想法。
2.定语从句的先行词是前面好几个名词并列起来，这个定语从句就修饰前面所有的名词。
For workers it can mean an end of security, benefits and sense of importance that came from being a loyal employee.
对于工人来说意味着来自于作为一个忠实的员工的安全、福利、责任感的结束。
3.定语从句的先行词不仅仅只有名词或者名词短语，还有可能是一个从句。
从句+引导+定语从句的结构
The Greeks assumed that the structure of language had some connection with the process of thought, which took root in Europe long before people realized how diverse language could be.
希腊人认为语言的结构和思维的过程有关系，这种观点在欧洲深深扎根了。在他们意识到语言的多样性之前。
He enjoyed talking with other young ladies, which really got his wife go mad.
他喜欢和其他年轻女性说话，这件事让他的妻子快发疯了。
在写作时，只要看到一些名词字眼，都可以有意识地加定语，从而拉长整个句子。
但是整篇文章不能全是长句子，也不能都是简单句。需要我们张弛有度，收放自如。
最好限制把一个英文句子限制在20个单词之内的范围。
养宠物可以减少孤单。
Keep pet can reduce loneliness.
pet 和loneliness是名词，开始加定语从句对其进行修饰了。
Keep pet looking strikingly cute as well as healthy can reduce loneliness of some senior citizen who stay at hone alone.
养非常可爱和健康的宠物可以减少那些空槽老人的孤单。
孝敬长辈是一个中华民族的传统美德
Supporting the elderly parent is a traditional Chinese virtue.
Supporting the senior citizens who have brought up their offspring is one of traditional Chinese virtues with a long history.
孝敬养育我们的长辈是一个中华民族有着悠久历史的传统美德。
读书可以开阔眼界
Reading books can broaden one's horizon.
读书有益于身心健康的书，可以扩大孩子和成年人的眼界。
slovenly: adj.邋遢的;衣冠不整的;凌乱的;马虎的
noble: adj.崇高的;品质高尚的;宏伟的;壮丽的;贵族的;高贵的 n.出身高贵的人;
in nature: 事实上
He, who looks rather slovenly is really noble in nature.
功夫是中国武术的俗称。中国武术的起源可以追溯到自卫的需求、狩猎活动已经古代的军事训练
Kung Fu is the common name of Chinese martial art which can be traced back to self-defense
need, hunting activities and military training in ancient China.
人们还在门上粘贴对联（couplets） 对联的主题有健康，发财和好运
"involve" = active, usually refers to things
"be involved in" = passive, usually refers to people
e.g.
• The plan involves breaking into a bank.
• Sepp Blatter is involved in a huge corruption scandal right now.
Doors will be decorated with red couplets whose topics involve health, wealth and good luck.
她的继父经常在假期里带她出国旅游，这使她感到在同学面前很骄傲
His stepfather often takes her to travel abroad during the vacation, which makes her feel proud in front of her classmates.
slovenly: 懒散的
slovenliness n.懒散;邋遢
Among the habits which children should shun are slovenliness, rudeness, laziness, lying, stealing and slandering.
剪纸（paper cutting） 是中国最为流行的传统民间艺术形式之一。中国剪纸有一千五百多年的历史，在明朝和清朝时期（The Ming and Qing Dynasties）特别流行
1500 -- years history: 褒义、正面的描述
a history of 1500 years : 贬义、负面的描述
Paper cutting was one of the most popular arts in ancient China which have 1500 -- years history and was especially popular in The Ming and Qing Dynasties.
那些全力以赴去实现梦想的人，即使没有成功也不会感到遗憾，这很重要。
significant adj.有重大意义的;显著的;有某种意义的;别有含义的;意味深长的
Although they finally fail, those who spare no efforts/make persistent efforts to pursue their dream never feel regretful, which is quite significant.
总是用定语从句，玩个非谓语。
Those sparing no efforts/making persistent efforts to pursue their dream never feel regretful, although they fail finally, which is quite significant.
那些课堂上不集中精力，有希望通过考试的学生，常常发现结果差强人意。
unsatisfactory: adj. 不够好的;不能令人满意的
concentrate： v.集中(注意力);聚精会神;使…集中(或集合、聚集);(使)浓缩 n.浓缩物
Students who can't concentrate in class room but wish to pass the examination, often find that the consequence is unsatisfactory.
长江流经多种不同的生态体系，是诸多濒危物种的栖息地，灌溉了中国五分之一的土地。
ecology: n.生态;生态学
ecological： adj.生态的;生态学的;关注生态环境的;主张生态保护的
endangered animal: 濒危动物
阅读
一些原因完全是社会需求的合理结果，另一些是科学方面在一定程度上特殊进步的合理结果。
In short, a leader of the new school contends, "The scientific revolution, as we call it, was largely the improvement and invention and use of a series of instruments that expanded the reach of science in innumerable direction."
简单来说，一个新学派的领导人认为，科学的改革很大程度上是 一系列/各种仪器的使用、发明和提升。这些仪器在各个行业也扩大了科学的范围。
bring together： 结合/整合
In Europe, as elsewhere, multi-media groups have been increasingly successful groups which bring together television, radio, newspapers, magazines and publishing houses that work in relation to one another.
在欧洲就像其他地方一样， 多媒体公司变得越来越成功。这些公司整合了电视、音频、报纸、杂志和出版社，那些相互联系在一起的行业。
创造一个欧洲身份，这个身份尊重不同的文化和传统。这些文化和传统又构成了旧大陆相互联系的纽带。这件事不是一件容易的事情需要战略性的选择。
working with：使用
ground-base detectors：地基探测器
balloon-borne instruments：球载仪器
closing in on：以恐怖的方式慢慢地包围和笼罩
Astrophysicists working with ground-base detectors at the South Pele and balloon-borne instruments are closing in on such structure and may report their findings soon.
使用南极地基探测器和球载仪器的天体物理学家们，正在研究这些结构，并且很快就会报告新发现。
function as: 作为
a collection of：一批
labor： vi. 努力争取(for);苦干;详细分析（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转
The second half of the 20th century saw a collection of geniuses, warriors entrepreneurs and visionaries labor to create a fabulous machine that could function as typewriter and printing press, studio and theater, paintbrush and gallery, piano and radio, the mail as well as the mail carrier.
二十世纪20年代中期，一批天才、勇士、企业家和幻想家一起苦干创造了一种神奇的机器。
这种机器可以作为打字机、印刷机、演播室、剧院、画笔、画廊、钢琴、收音机、邮件、邮递员。
我猜测是计算机。
parliamentary ：议会的
After six months of arguing and final 16 hours of hot parliamentary debates, Australia's Northern Territory became the first legal authority in the world to allow doctors to take the lives of incurably ill patients who wish to die.
议会经过6个月加16个小时激烈争论，澳大利亚北部成为了世界上唯一个允许医生给得了绝症并希望尽快结束生命的病人执行安乐死的政府。
concerning： prep.关于;涉及
comparative: adj.比较的;相比的;比较而言的;相对的;比较级
Whether to use tests, other kinds of information, or both in a particular situation depends, therefor, upon the evidence from experience concerning comparative validity and upon such factors as cost and availability.
参考
My teacher is a lady of elegance. 名词作定语
My teacher is lady as elegant as a rose. 介词短语作定语
My teacher is lady looking as elegant as a rose. 非谓语动词作定语