每天学点python（2）

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1. Tuple

2. Set

4. 循环

5. is，is not，in，not in

6.  Module 模块

7. 作为脚本

8. “Compiled” Python files

9. dir()

10. 包

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1. Tuple

不能直接改变tuple的元素，但是tuple的元素可以是可变的元素，比如list，因此可以改list。

>>> t = 12345, 54321, 'hello!'
>>> t[0]
12345
>>> t
(12345, 54321, 'hello!')
>>> # Tuples may be nested:
... u = t, (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
>>> u
((12345, 54321, 'hello!'), (1, 2, 3, 4, 5))
>>> # Tuples are immutable:
... t[0] = 88888
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
>>> # but they can contain mutable objects:
... v = ([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])
>>> v
([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])

2. set

集合，就是我们平时遇到的集合的概念，无序，没有重复

to create an empty set you have to use set(), not {}; the latter creates an empty dictionary

>>> basket = ['apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana']
>>> fruit = set(basket)               # create a set without duplicates
>>> fruit
set(['orange', 'pear', 'apple', 'banana'])
>>> 'orange' in fruit                 # fast membership testing
True
>>> 'crabgrass' in fruit
False

>>> # Demonstrate set operations on unique letters from two words
...
>>> a = set('abracadabra')
>>> b = set('alacazam')
>>> a                                  # unique letters in a
set(['a', 'r', 'b', 'c', 'd'])
>>> a - b                              # letters in a but not in b
set(['r', 'd', 'b'])
>>> a | b                              # letters in either a or b
set(['a', 'c', 'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'])
>>> a & b                              # letters in both a and b
set(['a', 'c'])
>>> a ^ b                              # letters in a or b but not both
set(['r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'])

3. dictionary

就是STL里的MAP，key不能是list

>>> tel = {'jack': 4098, 'sape': 4139}
>>> tel['guido'] = 4127
>>> tel
{'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127, 'jack': 4098}
>>> tel['jack']
4098
>>> del tel['sape']
>>> tel['irv'] = 4127
>>> tel
{'guido': 4127, 'irv': 4127, 'jack': 4098}
>>> tel.keys()
['guido', 'irv', 'jack']
>>> 'guido' in tel
True

>>> dict([('sape', 4139), ('guido', 4127), ('jack', 4098)])
{'sape': 4139, 'jack': 4098, 'guido': 4127}

>>> {x: x**2 for x in (2, 4, 6)}
{2: 4, 4: 16, 6: 36}                       #dictionary也有 comprehension

>>> dict(sape=4139, guido=4127, jack=4098)
{'sape': 4139, 'jack': 4098, 'guido': 4127}

4. 循环

enumerate(sequence, start=0)

>>> seasons = ['Spring', 'Summer', 'Fall', 'Winter']
>>> list(enumerate(seasons))
[(0, 'Spring'), (1, 'Summer'), (2, 'Fall'), (3, 'Winter')]
>>> list(enumerate(seasons, start=1))
[(1, 'Spring'), (2, 'Summer'), (3, 'Fall'), (4, 'Winter')]

同时遍历两个secquence，用 zip()

>>> questions = ['name', 'quest', 'favorite color']
>>> answers = ['lancelot', 'the holy grail', 'blue']
>>> for q, a in zip(questions, answers):
...     print 'What is your {0}?  It is {1}.'.format(q, a)
...
What is your name?  It is lancelot.
What is your quest?  It is the holy grail.
What is your favorite color?  It is blue.

sorted(iterable[, cmp[, key[, reverse]]])，sorted()

Return a new sorted list from the items in iterable.

>>> basket = ['apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana']
>>> for f in sorted(set(basket)):
...     print f
...
apple
banana
orange
pear

When looping through dictionaries, the key and corresponding value can be retrieved at the same time using the iteritems() method.

>>> knights = {'gallahad': 'the pure', 'robin': 'the brave'}
>>> for k, v in knights.iteritems():
...     print k, v
...
gallahad the pure
robin the brave

5. is，is not，in，not in

in，not in判断一个元素是不是在一个sequence里

is，not is判断一个元素是不是另一个元素，值得注意的是只能用于可变的结构，如list。

a < b == c，是合理的，这个句子的意思是判断a < b && b == c

and, or

以下这么写都可以，简直逆天了。。。

>>> string1, string2, string3 = '', 'Trondheim', 'Hammer Dance'
>>> non_null = string1 or string2 or string3
>>> non_null
'Trondheim'

Python 与 C 不同，在表达式内部不能赋值。 C 程序员经常对此抱怨，不过它避免了一类在 C 程序中司空见惯的错误：想要在解析式中使 == 时误用了 = 操作符。？？？？？？

另外，可以比较相同类型的sequence对象，依字典序依次比较：

(1, 2, 3)              < (1, 2, 4)
[1, 2, 3]              < [1, 2, 4]
'ABC' < 'C' < 'Pascal' < 'Python'
(1, 2, 3, 4)           < (1, 2, 4)
(1, 2)                 < (1, 2, -1)
(1, 2, 3)             == (1.0, 2.0, 3.0)
(1, 2, ('aa', 'ab'))   < (1, 2, ('abc', 'a'), 4)

Note that comparing objects of different types is legal. The outcome is deterministic but arbitrary: the types are ordered by their name. Thus, a list is always smaller than a string, a string is always smaller than a tuple, etc. [1] Mixed numeric types are compared according to their numeric value, so 0 equals 0.0, etc.

6.  Module 模块

模块是写的一段程序的保存的文件的名称，对于不用IDE直接用命令行import自己写的模块，可以这样：在环境变量path里添加python.exe的路径，然后在*.py文件夹所在的位置执行python，就可以导入模块了。如果一个模块的函数经常用，可以这样做：

>>> fib = fibo.fib
>>> fib(500)
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

还可以这样

>>> from fibo import fib, fib2
>>> fib(500)
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

>>> from fibo import *
>>> fib(500)
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377               #This imports all names except those beginning with an underscore (_).

Note：

For efficiency reasons, each module is only imported once per interpreter session. Therefore, if you change your modules, you must restart the interpreter – or, if it’s just one module you want to test interactively, use reload(), e.g. reload(modulename).

7. 作为脚本

python fibo.py <arguments>

$ python fibo.py 50
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34

If the module is imported, the code is not run:

>>> import fibo
>>>

在windows下运行python脚本，一闪而过，原因未知，待查询

但是当脚本只有一条print命令时，可以打印。

After initialization, Python programs can modify sys.path. The directory containing the script being run is placed at the beginning of the search path, ahead of the standard library path. This means that scripts in that directory will be loaded instead of modules of the same name in the library directory. This is an error unless the replacement is intended. See section Standard Modules for more information.

8. “Compiled” Python files

整节没看明白！！！！需要回头重新看！！！

9. dir()

The built-in function dir() is used to find out which names a module defines.

>>> import fibo, sys
>>> dir(fibo)
['__name__', 'fib', 'fib2']
>>> dir(sys)  
['__displayhook__', '__doc__', '__excepthook__', '__name__', '__package__',
 '__stderr__', '__stdin__', '__stdout__', '_clear_type_cache',
 '_current_frames', '_getframe', '_mercurial', 'api_version', 'argv',
 'builtin_module_names', 'byteorder', 'call_tracing', 'callstats',
 'copyright', 'displayhook', 'dont_write_bytecode', 'exc_clear', 'exc_info',
 'exc_traceback', 'exc_type', 'exc_value', 'excepthook', 'exec_prefix',
 'executable', 'exit', 'flags', 'float_info', 'float_repr_style',
 'getcheckinterval', 'getdefaultencoding', 'getdlopenflags',
 'getfilesystemencoding', 'getobjects', 'getprofile', 'getrecursionlimit',
 'getrefcount', 'getsizeof', 'gettotalrefcount', 'gettrace', 'hexversion',
 'long_info', 'maxint', 'maxsize', 'maxunicode', 'meta_path', 'modules',
 'path', 'path_hooks', 'path_importer_cache', 'platform', 'prefix', 'ps1',
 'py3kwarning', 'setcheckinterval', 'setdlopenflags', 'setprofile',
 'setrecursionlimit', 'settrace', 'stderr', 'stdin', 'stdout', 'subversion',
 'version', 'version_info', 'warnoptions']

Without arguments, dir() lists the names you have defined currently:

>>> a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
>>> import fibo
>>> fib = fibo.fib
>>> dir()
['__builtins__', '__name__', '__package__', 'a', 'fib', 'fibo', 'sys']

dir() does not list the names of built-in functions and variables. If you want a list of those, they are defined in the standard module__builtin__:

>>> import __builtin__
>>> dir(__builtin__)  
['ArithmeticError', 'AssertionError', 'AttributeError', 'BaseException',
 'BufferError', 'BytesWarning', 'DeprecationWarning', 'EOFError',
 'Ellipsis', 'EnvironmentError', 'Exception', 'False', 'FloatingPointError',
 'FutureWarning', 'GeneratorExit', 'IOError', 'ImportError', 'ImportWarning',
 'IndentationError', 'IndexError', 'KeyError', 'KeyboardInterrupt',
 'LookupError', 'MemoryError', 'NameError', 'None', 'NotImplemented',
 'NotImplementedError', 'OSError', 'OverflowError',
 'PendingDeprecationWarning', 'ReferenceError', 'RuntimeError',
 'RuntimeWarning', 'StandardError', 'StopIteration', 'SyntaxError',
 'SyntaxWarning', 'SystemError', 'SystemExit', 'TabError', 'True',
 'TypeError', 'UnboundLocalError', 'UnicodeDecodeError',
 'UnicodeEncodeError', 'UnicodeError', 'UnicodeTranslateError',
 'UnicodeWarning', 'UserWarning', 'ValueError', 'Warning',
 'ZeroDivisionError', '_', '__debug__', '__doc__', '__import__',
 '__name__', '__package__', 'abs', 'all', 'any', 'apply', 'basestring',
 'bin', 'bool', 'buffer', 'bytearray', 'bytes', 'callable', 'chr',
 'classmethod', 'cmp', 'coerce', 'compile', 'complex', 'copyright',
 'credits', 'delattr', 'dict', 'dir', 'divmod', 'enumerate', 'eval',
 'execfile', 'exit', 'file', 'filter', 'float', 'format', 'frozenset',
 'getattr', 'globals', 'hasattr', 'hash', 'help', 'hex', 'id', 'input',
 'int', 'intern', 'isinstance', 'issubclass', 'iter', 'len', 'license',
 'list', 'locals', 'long', 'map', 'max', 'memoryview', 'min', 'next',
 'object', 'oct', 'open', 'ord', 'pow', 'print', 'property', 'quit',
 'range', 'raw_input', 'reduce', 'reload', 'repr', 'reversed', 'round',
 'set', 'setattr', 'slice', 'sorted', 'staticmethod', 'str', 'sum', 'super',
 'tuple', 'type', 'unichr', 'unicode', 'vars', 'xrange', 'zip']

10. 包

sound/                          Top-level package
      __init__.py               Initialize the sound package
      formats/                  Subpackage for file format conversions
              __init__.py
              wavread.py
              wavwrite.py
              aiffread.py
              aiffwrite.py
              auread.py
              auwrite.py
              ...
      effects/                  Subpackage for sound effects
              __init__.py
              echo.py
              surround.py
              reverse.py
              ...
      filters/                  Subpackage for filters
              __init__.py
              equalizer.py
              vocoder.py
              karaoke.py
              ...

The __init__.py files are required to make Python treat the directories as containing packages; this is done to prevent directories with a common name, such as string, from unintentionally hiding valid modules that occur later on the module search path. In the simplest case, __init__.py can just be an empty file, but it can also execute initialization code for the package or set the __all__ variable

Note that when using from package import item, the item can be either a submodule (or subpackage) of the package, or some other name defined in the package, like a function, class or variable. The import statement first tests whether the item is defined in the package; if not, it assumes it is a module and attempts to load it. If it fails to find it, an ImportError exception is raised.

Contrarily, when using syntax like import item.subitem.subsubitem, each item except for the last must be a package; the last item can be a module or a package but can’t be a class or function or variable defined in the previous item.

__init__.py      ====>        __all__      ====>    

__all__ = ["echo", "surround", "reverse"]

__all__是一个list，存储了这个包里的子包的名称，当

from sound.effects import *

可以明确的指出导入哪些包。

如果没有__init__.py，执行上面的语句的时候，只能保证导入了sound.effects，它里边的子包里包含的所有内容都会导入，包括所有的名字、函数等。如果前面已经到入这个包的子包的一些内容的话，就会重复导入，比如执行下面的语句的话：

import sound.effects.echo
import sound.effects.surround
from sound.effects import *

记住，使用``from Package import specific_submodule``这种方法永远不会有错。事实上，这也是推荐的方法。除非是你要导入的子模块有可能和其他包的子模块重名。

The submodules often need to refer to each other. For example, the surround module might use the echo module. In fact, such references are so common that the importstatement first looks in the containing package before looking in the standard module search path. Thus, the surround module can simply use import echo or from echo importechofilter. If the imported module is not found in the current package (the package of which the current module is a submodule), the import statement looks for a top-level module with the given name.

When packages are structured into subpackages (as with the sound package in the example), you can use absolute imports to refer to submodules of siblings packages. For example, if the module sound.filters.vocoder needs to use the echo module in the sound.effects package, it can use from sound.effects import echo.

Note that both explicit and implicit relative imports are based on the name of the current module. Since the name of the main module is always "__main__", modules intended for use as the main module of a Python application should always use absolute imports.

此外，包还有一个列表__path__，code执行之前保存了__init__里的内容。